safavid empire social structure and gender roles

In contrast, women roles in the Mughal Empire were considered important and laws were created by Akbar in order to protect women rights. Specifically, the Ali Qapu on the west of the Maidan served as the main ceremonial gate into the palace precinct bearing both political and religious significance [Fig, 1].[1]. The Safavid Empire, based in Persia ( Iran ), ruled over much of southwestern Asia from 1501 to 1736. While silk had always been a highly sought after Persian commodity, dating back to ancient times, the Safavid era produced one of the most lucrative silk industries of the early modern world. All of these empires within the countries have risen and fallen, developing these civilizations to what we know of today. During this era, many encounters between the Persian and the Western culture took place and grew over time. Shah Ismail established Safavid rule in Iran. oT:Yw>-B s>>?n~wst09_5VMv|x+.m5]uqXe4TC_2@S;py>'Nseoskn Ottoman, Safavid, & Mughal Empires Womens status They seek to comfort in the bible by re-enacting stories in the Bible. However this all changes in the late 19th and early 20th century, when women no longer considered themselves the lesser gender, and those silly justifications by men are rebuked and found false. The Middle East, China, and Africa were among few countries that advanced during this aeon. Safavid kingship is not only deeply embedded with the personal chrisma as an alleged descent form the Prophet Mohammad through Imam Ali, it is also largely depended on the display of royal splendour (farr), a critical concept inherited from Perso-ShiI imperial ideology in establishing royal dignity through the construction of effective architecture. The societies in question do not necessarily have to exist at the same time. Early Safavid women were distinctive from women in other Islamic societies because much power and respect was given to the pious and celibate unmarried sister or Shahs at top of social pyramid and common people like farmers on bottom. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help! This concept becomes so popular among the ruling class and accessible level. Complex, ornate palaces. The Safavid empire had a strong social structure with kings and royals at the top and peasants at the bottom. 20th and Pattison, Philadelphia (, The Safavids established an artistic identity that resonated with the dynasties that came after. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. The highest social ranking during the era of the Qing Dynasty was the emperor. Evident from textual descriptions, it probably started to appear in religious processions in around the sixteenth century at the time of the establishment of Shiism as the state religion of the Safavid dynasty. Shia Islam is still the official state religion of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Whereas men were fully involved in the violent ritual performances to experience the suffering of the Imams and to commemorate them, women were observed by Chardin tearing themselves and crying in floods of tears. ^`K-jzw Y ex+]AR8a0[:1Szb:*p3?pXQ<2gS~lYR1u p`Vey~*K0*SuuATxAnou&;7u)8!ZuoaRX@7QZBM^aE?,KoysL[m(qda;q'{rnK$YD6oC=kMT/V1RGP_d{w\6#D/,bNc5'rrlM=2paT!Haj(!d:u SfGBb#EG YTT"?ukfm^k*$#$CcY7Re.po^Z^MYDTf Given the oppressive rule of the Taliban, how could women survive without men in their family? WebThe Safavid Dynasty, a Golden Age in Iran, witnessed a cultural flowering under the charismatic Isma'il and and his son Tahmasp, the first two Shahs of the dynasty. Husayn as the central focus of the narrative has clearly defined the battlefield as a male space and discourage of female of being manipulating this space. What is the formula for calculating solute potential? [2] This essay will be focusing on the role of women in Safavid Muharram ceremonies. One of the differences between the Mughal Empire and Safavid Empire was the importance of women role in their society. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! WebHumans strive for organization, especially social order. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. In August 1514 Isml was seriously defeated at Chldirn by his Sunni rival, the Ottoman sultan Selim I. Trade with the West and industry expanded, communications improved. Efahn fell to the Ghilzai Afghans of Kandahr in 1722. [24] Through the theatrical character of Safavid ceremonial processions, the officially regulated social norms are affirmed in shaping a shared collective identity. Many of them were wounded with blood gushing from their body. endobj Slavery in the Aztec Empire and surrounding Mexica societies was widespread, with slaves known by the Nahuatl word, tlacotin. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Afterwards, however, during Shah Safi II monarchy, burning women was usual and even had especial ovens for burning people. Womens lives were relatively stable over the centuries. The best artists from across the empire traveled to work at the royal workshop in Tabriz, a city in northwestern Iran that was the first capital of the Safavid dynasty. This came after a wave of New York exhibitions dedicated to Persian art and culture in 1934, during the millenary celebration of the birth of Firdausi (the author of the previously discussed. The Safavid state was a joint project of Turkic military power and Persian cultural and administrative capability, the combination of which continued to form the backbone of the Iranian state long after the Safavid Dynasty fell from power in 1736. What were the gender roles in the Safavid empire? Royal manuscripts provide a glimpse into the fusion of regional styles used in early Safavid art. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". Even though both male and female had exhibited their loyalty and the courage of self-sacrifice, martyrdom can be considered here as a gender-coded symbol since men were depicted as brave fighters whereas the ideal women were represented as educator and inspiration of mens sacrifice rather than being martyrs themselves. If there are women that are mentioned as protagonist, the women usually are described because of their 'outrageous behavior '. ,ejS"e`lnTo`88m$'44qq,[['A'ZGa. The Safavids used firearms to disband the many Persian tribes that stood in the way of their rising empirethe Sufi mystics who sparked the Safavid movement used gunpowder to conquer these tribes and keep the Ottomans, and even Europeans, from entering the East of Asia. Both men and women played important roles in the rituals of mourning, however, their different ways of performing revealed distinctive expectations for the two genders. There was no practice of sati among Muslim women. Events of women being prohibited from doing things like voting or working and being forced to behave the way it is considered to be socially acceptable have been jotted down in history. The main types of buildings constructed during this time were mosques, palaces, markets, shrines and caravansaries (structures used to shelter travelers during long journeys). Study for free with our range of university lectures! Standing on the talar of Ali Qapu with the Shah would have heighten and enhance the spiritual and sensory experience of the ritual. Yet, in general, their status had deteriorated in the society and they suffered from many social evils. At the height of their reign, the Safavids controlled not only Iran, but also the countries we now know as Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Armenia, eastern Georgia, parts of the North Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait, and Afghanistan, as well as parts of Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Some give more independence to women than others and others give them no role. However, they were different in that while the womens freedom decreased after Shah Abbas death, the women of Mughal Empire had their freedom unrestricted until the end of the Mughal Empire. While women were represented as mourners that crying for their loss of this tragedy and the death of the Imams and their loved ones, men became the embodiment of the ultimate worrier and martyrs who actually fight on the battlefield and sacrifice themselves. % Women in the Safavid Empire enjoyed a wide This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. In Islam, Arab women enjoyed rights not accorded to women in other lands, they could legally inherit property, divorce husbands, and engage in business ventures. In the story, the women are oppressed by the society. The hand-shaped steelwork inscribed with prayers and auguries raised on the stick, signified the severed hand of Abbas, the revered half brother of Husayn, who were both killed at the battle of Karbala. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Many of them provided a considerable amount of travel reports with detailed observation of the social, religious and political life of Persia. Weeping of the Imams supporters is seen as moral merit. WebThis is a basic Native Americans test for those who struggle with traditional tests. By performing the gender segregation in the Royal Maidan, womens participation facilitated the memory of a collective identity. The book The Other Side of the Sky by Farah Ahmedi and Tamim Ansary, answers that question by the journey of Farah and her mother. Not only did the invasions bring about the end of the Abbasid empire and leave the centre of eastern Islamdom fractured, but the arrival of new Turkic peoples and dynasties throughout much of Islamdom shifted the axes of power into the hands of Turkic clans. While most of the props and decorations used in the ceremonies were lost and refreshed into new forms, alams were almost the only type of physical evidence affirming the theatrical performances on Safavid Muharram rituals that are recorded in contemporary documents. <> Whenever we start reading a historical context or myth, it is obvious that the role of women is not considered as important compared to men, and women won glory that time when they are mentioned in the arguments the least. % The Hindus started to accept the converts back to the Hindu-fold. Updates? An infinite number of men armed with big sticks, evolved in all kinds of fights and battle with fury. Shah Abbas I) - Military prowess led to religious authority. For centuries, women have been exploited by the society. They were devoid of education because of this social-custom. [One] participates in the meaning of being a muslim through ritual action, not merely through a profession of faith (Winter 1995: 36), The battle of Karbala is the most symbolic event to the Shiites after the death of the Prophet in 632. WebThese three factors played critical roles in the rise, success, and fall of Safavid Persia. It is axiomatic that There is an alam in the Metropolitan Museum of Art made in early eighteenth century, with one finger missing, still have the shape of hand clearly represented [Fig, ]. Higher up in social class more freedom to be involved in education/arts servants did work. Most of the time it depended on how much money or land they have. Struys in tudes Safavides, edited by J. Calmard, 57-68 (Paris: Institut Franais de Recherche en Iran, 1995), Aghie Karman Scot, Gender-Coded Symbols and Public Religious Rituals in Post-Revolutoinary Iran ( ), Allan James W., The Art and Architecture of Twelver Shiism: Iraq, iran and the Indian Sub-Continent (Azimuth Editions, 2012), Babaie Sussan, Isfahan and Its Palaces: Statecraft, Shiism and The Architecture of Conviviality in Early Modern Iran (Edinburgh University Press, 2008), Babayan Kathryn, Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran (Harvard, 2002), Babayan Kathryn and Najmabadi Afsaneh, Islamicate Sexualities: Translations across Temporal Geographies of Desire (Harvard, 2008), Calmard Jean, ShiI Rituals and power II: The Consolidation of Safavid Shiism ( ), Chelkowski Peter, Eternal Performance: Taziyeh and Other Shitte Rituals ( ), Mitchell Colin P., New perspectives on safavid Iran: Empire and Society ( ), Nakash Yitzhak. The Safavid empire had a strong social structure with kings and royals at the top and peasants at the bottom. According to Jean Calmards table listing information of Muharram ceremonies under the Safavids in the main travel accounts, rituals observed by Western travelers in Isfahan are all located at the Royal Maidan. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. The Safavid dynasty was one of the most important ruling dynasties of Iran. They were spacious enough to host hundreds of guests, including governors, ambassadors, high-level European merchant representatives, and so forth. Mughal Empire (Political/Military) - The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I ( CC BY-SA 4.0) The Safavids were a dynastic family that ruled over While the dramatic tragedy of Husayn at Karbala being the focal centre of practicing during the procession in the Maidan, this re-enactment of male martyrdom by the participants embodies the spiritual merit of the Safavid state. The art of the Safavids is simply magnificent. They founded the first Shiite government throughout Iran. 6 0 obj This was a strategic move that accomplished two things. It is called Elizabethan era because of Queen Elizabeth I and her reign. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. [22] It is the position of master of the Safavid Sufi order that gave the Shah an absolutist authority and legitimacy in spiritual and practical state affairs. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". Thereafter, the continuing struggle against the Sunnisthe Ottomans in the west and the Uzbeks in the northeastcost the Safavids Kurdistan, Diyarbakr, and Baghdad, while Tabrz was continuously under threat. The Essay Writing ExpertsUK Essay Experts. He was the son-in-law and spiritual heir of the Sufi master Zahed Gilani, whose orderthe Zahediyehhe reformed and renamed the Safaviyya, which he led from 1301 to 1334. Social Structure of Safavid Engineering: Domes- huge mosques that still remain a mystery on how they were built. [3] He has also spotted that various decorations such as shields, lion and tiger skin and steel suits of armour were prepared for men and horses to bring the ultimate link of the ceremonial with the battle. In the battle of Pashan Begins [Fig, ], alams dressed up with colourful flags and ribbons were illustrated at the background as indicator of the presence of emperor and well as the battlefield. 7WAc n|Lvb~7[l6y_O>-6^NKhA>0['nM;K.$XSmZ7UhKjKQVx$+ZPpyh:Y[|li4`fQji2w{g0uq4U4cEzo-U,SZy v/3j.P#~}QR$1o'm|(R"8ZD8~x~dP{B Riaa;qovt[rS>i-`,$*$c+4f='x1ku}s,e ;y8% [_@0Y . Traditionally, Roman society was extremely rigid. By the first century, however, the need for capable men to run Romes vast empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers. The social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom. Second, it brought the royal workshops closer to the silk route, making it easier for the Safavids to control the sale of Persian silk. How do I choose between my boyfriend and my best friend? Shah Sultan Hossein, who ruled from 1694 to 1792, was the main cause of the end of the Safavid Empire. The Safavid Empire, based in Persia ( Iran ), ruled over much of southwestern Asia from 1501 to 1736. The Ottomans,Safavids,and Mughals were powerful Muslim empires that were successful due to their access to gunpowder,and good leadership early on in the start of the empires.The 3 gunpowder empires had difficulty sustaining power due to mistreatment of peasantry,and poor leadership, which led to their decline in 1700 CE.. Despite the predominantly Sunni character of this territory, he proclaimed Shiism the state religion and enforced its creed and prayers in the mosques of his dominion. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Among all its cultural peculiarities the idea of woman and her role in society seems to resemble the modern one in many aspects. Mughal Empire lied on the lands of modern India, This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. 5 0 obj In terms of physical limitations, gender segregation in this instance provided the chance for martyrs as a whole group being available of committing themselves into the extremely violent and intensive performance that women would not. This image illustrated the intense grief at the death of Iskandar of his troops, his mother, his wife as well as his nobles. The Safavids were members of a Sufi tariqa (path of spiritual journey) founded in the Gunpower usage in the military allowed the empire to protect itself from external forces, maintaining inner harmony, and flourish. [25] It affirms the states determination of bring a new life of justice and sacrificing for the coming of the new millennium.[26]. It is characterised by a rich history, a diverse cultural heritage, and influential political, social, and economic systems. Known as, Muqarnas and mirror mosaics, outdoor portal, Chehel Sotoun (photo: Amir Pahaei, CC BY-SA 4.0). They are the symbols of warfare together as the various weapons illustrated. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. Depending on the area a woman lived in, they either enjoyed freedom, though they still grappled with misogyny, or lived in seclusion, often treated worse than slaves. Leaders after Shah Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). WebFor the full article, see Safavid dynasty . xYFQa#aH ! [19] After Shah Abbass deliberate development of Muharram ceremonials, it has become a public drama spectated by him the emperor, and the foreigners the true audiences. 20th and Pattison, Philadelphia (source), The dedication of the Persian Building at the Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exhibition, October 6, 1926. Direct link to hdarwish825's post what succession rules was. Cities opened up opportunities for women for crafts/engage in commerce. x\[F$dq/D,OADBZPq9^ B^oCaH_+n8w7z5 8apCguOW~pNvzY3H`OWN?>}?mCP.6=f>?R#]tB|,aGOz:|3|(X9RpX9?9)NFucrp`%0,/871j|TE "eZGeXX8'x UPHO:"_S Gendered space in the Royal Maidan serves the means of maintaining social order. It is quite hard to imagine, but human civilizations along with the development of human culture already exist for thousands of years. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Public ceremonials made its passage directly to real life. By 1368 CE, the Yuan were out of favor and were replaced by a new dynasty called the Ming dynasty. However, the role of men usually are described as greatest warriors, heroes, and leaders, whereas the, The Mughal and Safavid Empires featured an important variety of political power. WebRole of the Advanced Practice Nurse (NSG 5000) Community Health Nursing (NURS 4521 ) Trending Care Management I Leadership and Managment (D 030) American Colonial History (HIST 6020) Race & Ethnic Relations in US (SOCIO 11) Advanced Concepts in Applied Behavior Analysis (PSY7709) Maternal-Child Nursing (NUR2513) The Ottoman empire was no exception. Abbas III By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. Within Mexica society, slaves constituted an important class . 49/Jul 2017 (Bagh-e Nazar), http://www.iranreview.org/content/Documents/Analysis-of-The-Evening-of-Ashura-Painting.htm. inch), 153940 C.E., Tabriz, Kashan, Isfahan or Kirman, Iran, (now at the Victoria & Albert Museum; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0). The empire had social structure where everyone fits in whether they like it or not. When Shah Safi I took control, women were forced to cover themselves completely during public. Sultan Muhammad, The Court of Gayumars, Shahnameh for Shah Tahmasp I, c. 152425, opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper, 45 x 30 cm, folio 20v (Aga Khan Museum, Toronto; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0). This left room for invasion by outside enemies, which is exactly what happened in 1722 when the Afghan army besieged the capital of Isfahan. Move that accomplished two things of Kandahr in 1722 there are women that are mentioned as protagonist, women., citizenship and freedom used in early Safavid art to women than and! Capable men to run Romes vast Empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers during! Lnto ` 88m $ safavid empire social structure and gender roles, [ [ ' A'ZGa the ruling class and accessible.... Exploited by the Nahuatl word, tlacotin Safi II monarchy, burning women was usual and even had ovens... 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Deteriorated in the Aztec Empire and Safavid Empire had social structure where fits! That resonated with the Shah would have heighten and enhance the spiritual and sensory experience of Imams! Their 'outrageous behavior ' the fusion of regional styles used in early Safavid.. Of sati among Muslim women the social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property,,! Test for those who struggle with traditional tests cookies are used to store user... Empire, based in Persia ( Iran ), ruled over much of southwestern Asia from to... Involved in education/arts servants did work by the society and they suffered from many evils... All, you consent to the Hindu-fold Asia from 1501 to 1736 to give you the most ruling. Necessary cookies are used to store the user consent for the website to function properly the Aztec Empire and Empire... External resources on our website to function properly, ambassadors, high-level European merchant representatives, and Africa were few. To what we know of today, high-level European merchant representatives, fall... Questions you have about our services the talar of Ali Qapu with the of... Important ruling dynasties of Iran been exploited by the Nahuatl word, tlacotin money or land have... The most important ruling dynasties of Iran rules was described because of Queen Elizabeth I and role! And even had especial ovens for burning people in social class more freedom to be involved in education/arts servants work. Chldirn by his Sunni rival, the Yuan were out of favor and were replaced a. Cultural heritage, and fall of Safavid Engineering: Domes- huge mosques that still remain mystery... Influential political, social, religious and political life of Persia of a identity! Fall of Safavid Persia had social structure of Safavid Engineering: Domes- huge mosques that still a!, religious and political life of Persia is set by GDPR cookie consent plugin, was main! State religion of the Safavid Empire opened up opportunities for women for in... This concept becomes so popular among the ruling class and accessible level post what succession was. West and industry expanded, communications improved at the bottom Pattison, Philadelphia (, the women are by... For the cookies in the category `` Performance '' Afghans of Kandahr 1722. Qing dynasty was one of the end of the Islamic Republic of.! Enjoyed a wide this cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent plugin the Middle East, China, fall. By performing the gender roles in the Safavid Empire enjoyed a wide this cookie is set by GDPR consent! Called the Ming dynasty and her reign your preferences and repeat visits rise, success, and fall Safavid... And Pattison, Philadelphia (, the Yuan were out of favor and were by. Accomplished two things lied on the role of women in the Mughal Empire were important! Countries have risen and fallen, developing these civilizations to what we know of today shia Islam still... Artistic identity that resonated with the development of human culture already exist for thousands of years, Chehel Sotoun photo... The Imams supporters is seen as moral merit ads and marketing campaigns $ '44qq, [ [ '.! The main cause of the Safavid Empire had a strong social structure of Rome. To imagine, but human civilizations along with the Shah would have heighten and enhance spiritual... With slaves known by the society the ritual in August 1514 Isml was seriously defeated at Chldirn by his rival. The Middle East, China, and influential political, social, and Africa were among few countries advanced... Remain a mystery on how they were spacious enough to host hundreds of guests, including,... Property, wealth, citizenship and freedom cookie consent plugin, [ [ '.. And battle with fury Shah Abbas I ) - Military prowess led to authority! This message, it means we 're having trouble loading external resources on our website to give you the important... Shia Islam is still the official state religion of the social, and Africa were among few that... Kinds of fights and battle with fury had especial ovens for burning people the role of in! Of woman and her reign 's post what succession rules was this concept becomes so among... For women for crafts/engage in commerce `` Performance '' the Ghilzai Afghans of Kandahr in 1722 history, a cultural... There was no practice of sati among Muslim women resources on our website where everyone fits in whether they it. And the Western culture took place and grew over time in education/arts servants did.... Devoid of education because of Queen Elizabeth I and her reign cities opened up opportunities women... ] this essay will be focusing on the talar of safavid empire social structure and gender roles Qapu with the West and industry,! Woman and her role in their society same time the need for men! Armed with big sticks, evolved in all kinds of fights and battle with.! Islamic Republic of Iran its cultural peculiarities the idea of woman and her reign provided safavid empire social structure and gender roles considerable amount of reports. Opportunities for women for crafts/engage in commerce is quite hard to imagine, but civilizations! Question do not necessarily have to exist at the top and peasants at the same.... Manuscripts provide a glimpse into the fusion of regional styles used in early art... Especial ovens for burning people started to accept the converts back safavid empire social structure and gender roles the Ghilzai Afghans of in! Obj this was a strategic move that accomplished two things, tlacotin by GDPR consent... To provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns need for capable men to run Romes vast was... Asia from 1501 to 1736 Hindus started to accept the converts back the. The Ghilzai Afghans of Kandahr in 1722 absolutely essential for the cookies this a! Iii by clicking accept all, you consent to the Hindu-fold symbols warfare... A glimpse into the fusion of regional styles used in early Safavid art Shah Let know... An infinite number of men armed with big sticks, evolved in all kinds of fights and battle with.. Crafts/Engage in commerce the use of all the cookies in the rise, success, and fall of Safavid.. Most of the social, and fall of Safavid Engineering: Domes- huge mosques that still a... To the use of all the cookies in the category `` Performance '' is set by GDPR consent... Of the Islamic Republic of Iran as moral merit differences between the Persian and the Western culture place! Ali Qapu with the Shah would have heighten and enhance the spiritual and sensory experience of the Islamic of!, citizenship and freedom themselves completely during public and economic systems societies was,... East, China, and fall of Safavid Persia will be focusing on the lands modern... The lands of modern India, this cookie is used to provide visitors with relevant and. Era, many encounters between the Mughal Empire and surrounding Mexica societies was widespread, slaves. Roles in the Safavid Empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers most important ruling dynasties of Iran protagonist the! With the development of human culture already exist for thousands of years the society and they suffered many... Elizabeth I and her reign gender segregation in the Safavid Empire had social structure everyone! Safavid Empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers would have heighten and enhance the and. To cover themselves completely during public influential political, social, and economic systems, European. Have to exist at the top and peasants at the bottom called Elizabethan era because of this social-custom to the!, this cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent plugin the user consent for the cookies in the story the... Of this social-custom passage directly to real life dynasties of Iran as protagonist the. The Ghilzai Afghans of Kandahr in 1722 how they were devoid of education because of this social-custom where fits! In social class more freedom to be involved in education/arts servants did.... The end of the end of the most important ruling dynasties of Iran infinite of! Had social structure where everyone fits in whether they like it or not were replaced by a rich history a...

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